
Am J Psychiatry 162:12-24, January 2005
© 2005 American Psychiatric Association
Schizophrenia and Migration: A Meta-Analysis and Review
Elizabeth Cantor-Graae, Ph.D., and
Jean-Paul Selten, Ph.D., M.D.
OBJECTIVE: The authors synthesize findings of previous studies implicating migration as a risk factor for the development of schizophrenia and provide a quantitative index of the associated effect size. METHOD: MEDLINE was searched for population-based incidence studies concerning migrants in English-language publications appearing between the years 1977 and 2003. Article bibliographies and an Australian database were cross-referenced. Studies were included if incidence reports provided numerators and denominators and if age correction was performed or could be performed by the authors. Relative risks for migrant groups were extracted or calculated for each study. Significant heterogeneity across studies indicated the need for a mixed-effects meta-analytic model. RESULTS: The mean weighted relative risk for developing schizophrenia among first-generation migrants (40 effect sizes) was 2.7 (95% confidence interval [CI]=2.33.2). A separate analysis performed for second-generation migrants (seven effect sizes) yielded a relative risk of 4.5 (95% CI=1.513.1). An analysis performed for studies concerning both first- and second-generation migrants and studies that did not distinguish between generations (50 effect sizes) yielded a relative risk of 2.9 (95% CI=2.53.4). Subgroup comparisons yielded significantly greater effect sizes for migrants from developing versus developed countries (relative risk=3.3, 95% CI=2.83.9) and for migrants from areas where the majority of the population is black (relative risk=4.8, 95% CI=3.76.2) versus white and neither black nor white. CONCLUSIONS: A personal or family history of migration is an important risk factor for schizophrenia. The differential risk pattern across subgroups suggests a role for psychosocial adversity in the etiology of schizophrenia.
This article has been cited by other articles:

|
 |

|
 |
 
B. Anbesse, C. Hanlon, A. Alem, S. Packer, and R. Whitley
Migration and Mental Health: a Study of Low-Income Ethiopian Women Working in Middle Eastern Countries
International Journal of Social Psychiatry,
November 1, 2009;
55(6):
557 - 568.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
B. P. F. Rutten and J. Mill
Epigenetic Mediation of Environmental Influences in Major Psychotic Disorders
Schizophr Bull,
November 1, 2009;
35(6):
1045 - 1056.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
S. Baarnhielm and M. Scarpinati Rosso
The Cultural Formulation: A Model to Combine Nosology and Patients' Life Context in Psychiatric Diagnostic Practice
Transcultural Psychiatry,
September 1, 2009;
46(3):
406 - 428.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
P. Lundberg, E. Cantor-Graae, G. Rukundo, S. Ashaba, and P.-O. Ostergren
Urbanicity of place of birth and symptoms of psychosis, depression and anxiety in Uganda
The British Journal of Psychiatry,
August 1, 2009;
195(2):
156 - 162.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
W. Veling, H. W. Hoek, D. Wiersma, and J. P. Mackenbach
Ethnic Identity and the Risk of Schizophrenia in Ethnic Minorities: A Case-Control Study
Schizophr Bull,
May 8, 2009;
(2009)
sbp032v1.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
S. M. Manchak, J. L. Skeem, K. S. Douglas, and M. Siranosian
Does Gender Moderate the Predictive Utility of the Level of Service Inventory--Revised (LSI-R) for Serious Violent Offenders?
Criminal Justice and Behavior,
May 1, 2009;
36(5):
425 - 442.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
I. Tarricone, A. R. Atti, F. Salvatori, M. Braca, S. Ferrari, D. Malmusi, and D. Berardi
Psychotic Symptoms and General Health in a Socially Disadvantaged Migrant Community in Bologna
International Journal of Social Psychiatry,
May 1, 2009;
55(3):
203 - 213.
[Abstract]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
C. Corcoran, M. Perrin, S. Harlap, L. Deutsch, S. Fennig, O. Manor, D. Nahon, D. Kimhy, D. Malaspina, and E. Susser
Incidence of Schizophrenia Among Second-Generation Immigrants in the Jerusalem Perinatal Cohort
Schizophr Bull,
May 1, 2009;
35(3):
596 - 602.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
S. H. Fatemi and T. D. Folsom
The Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis of Schizophrenia, Revisited
Schizophr Bull,
May 1, 2009;
35(3):
528 - 548.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
O. D. Howes and S. Kapur
The Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia: Version III--The Final Common Pathway
Schizophr Bull,
May 1, 2009;
35(3):
549 - 562.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
D. K. Kinney, P. Teixeira, D. Hsu, S. C. Napoleon, D. J. Crowley, A. Miller, W. Hyman, and E. Huang
Relation of Schizophrenia Prevalence to Latitude, Climate, Fish Consumption, Infant Mortality, and Skin Color: A Role for Prenatal Vitamin D Deficiency and Infections?
Schizophr Bull,
May 1, 2009;
35(3):
582 - 595.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
J. C. Pascual, A. Malagon, D. Corcoles, J. M. Gines, J. Soler, C. Garcia-Ribera, V. Perez, and A. Bulbena
Immigrants and borderline personality disorder at a psychiatric emergency service
The British Journal of Psychiatry,
December 1, 2008;
193(6):
471 - 476.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
S. Archie, N. Akhtar-Danesh, R. Norman, A. Malla, P. Roy, and R. B. Zipursky
Ethnic Diversity and Pathways to Care for a First Episode of Psychosis in Ontario
Schizophr Bull,
November 5, 2008;
(2008)
sbn137v1.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
J. McGrath, S. Saha, D. Chant, and J. Welham
Schizophrenia: A Concise Overview of Incidence, Prevalence, and Mortality
Epidemiol. Rev.,
November 1, 2008;
30(1):
67 - 76.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
D. March, S. L. Hatch, C. Morgan, J. B. Kirkbride, M. Bresnahan, P. Fearon, and E. Susser
Psychosis and Place
Epidemiol. Rev.,
November 1, 2008;
30(1):
84 - 100.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
J. W. Coid, J. B. Kirkbride, D. Barker, F. Cowden, R. Stamps, M. Yang, and P. B. Jones
Raised Incidence Rates of All Psychoses Among Migrant Groups: Findings From the East London First Episode Psychosis Study
Arch Gen Psychiatry,
November 1, 2008;
65(11):
1250 - 1258.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
A. S. Brown and E. S. Susser
Prenatal Nutritional Deficiency and Risk of Adult Schizophrenia
Schizophr Bull,
November 1, 2008;
34(6):
1054 - 1063.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
R. van Winkel, N. C. Stefanis, and I. Myin-Germeys
Psychosocial Stress and Psychosis. A Review of the Neurobiological Mechanisms and the Evidence for Gene-Stress Interaction
Schizophr Bull,
November 1, 2008;
34(6):
1095 - 1105.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
J. van Os, B. P. Rutten, and R. Poulton
Gene-Environment Interactions in Schizophrenia: Review of Epidemiological Findings and Future Directions
Schizophr Bull,
November 1, 2008;
34(6):
1066 - 1082.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
T. M. Lincoln, E. Arens, C. Berger, and W. Rief
Can Antistigma Campaigns Be Improved? A Test of the Impact of Biogenetic Vs Psychosocial Causal Explanations on Implicit and Explicit Attitudes to Schizophrenia
Schizophr Bull,
September 1, 2008;
34(5):
984 - 994.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
J. B. Kirkbride, D. Barker, F. Cowden, R. Stamps, M. Yang, P. B. Jones, and J. W. Coid
Psychoses, ethnicity and socio-economic status
The British Journal of Psychiatry,
July 1, 2008;
193(1):
18 - 24.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
W. Veling, E. Susser, J. van Os, J. P. Mackenbach, J.-P. Selten, and H. W. Hoek
Ethnic Density of Neighborhoods and Incidence of Psychotic Disorders Among Immigrants
Am J Psychiatry,
January 1, 2008;
165(1):
66 - 73.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
J.-P. SELTEN and E. CANTOR-GRAAE
Hypothesis: social defeat is a risk factor for schizophrenia?
The British Journal of Psychiatry,
December 1, 2007;
191(51):
s9 - s12.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
P. R. MENEZES, M. SCAZUFCA, G. F. BUSATTO, L. M. S. COUTINHO, P. K. McGUIRE, and R. M. MURRAY
Incidence of first-contact psychosis in Sao Paulo, Brazil
The British Journal of Psychiatry,
December 1, 2007;
191(51):
s102 - s106.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
M. WEISER, J. VAN OS, A. REICHENBERG, J. RABINOWITZ, D. NAHON, E. KRAVITZ, G. LUBIN, M. SHMUSHKEVITZ, H. Y. KNOBLER, S. NOY, et al.
Social and cognitive functioning, urbanicity and risk for schizophrenia
The British Journal of Psychiatry,
October 1, 2007;
191(4):
320 - 324.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
R. E. Hoffman
A Social Deafferentation Hypothesis for Induction of Active Schizophrenia
Schizophr Bull,
September 1, 2007;
33(5):
1066 - 1070.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
E. Cantor-Graae
Ethnic minority groups, particularly African-Caribbean and Black African groups, are at increased risk of psychosis in the UK
Evid. Based Ment. Health,
August 1, 2007;
10(3):
95 - 95.
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
M. Bresnahan, M. D Begg, A. Brown, C. Schaefer, N. Sohler, B. Insel, L. Vella, and E. Susser
Race and risk of schizophrenia in a US birth cohort: another example of health disparity?
Int. J. Epidemiol.,
August 1, 2007;
36(4):
751 - 758.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
W. Veling, J.-P. Selten, E. Susser, W. Laan, J. P Mackenbach, and H. W Hoek
Discrimination and the incidence of psychotic disorders among ethnic minorities in The Netherlands
Int. J. Epidemiol.,
August 1, 2007;
36(4):
761 - 768.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
R. Dutta, T. Greene, J. Addington, K. McKenzie, M. Phillips, and R. M. Murray
Biological, Life Course, and Cross-Cultural Studies All point Toward the Value of Dimensional and Developmental Ratings in the Classification of Psychosis
Schizophr Bull,
July 1, 2007;
33(4):
868 - 876.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
J. J. McGrath
The Surprisingly Rich Contours of Schizophrenia Epidemiology
Arch Gen Psychiatry,
January 1, 2007;
64(1):
14 - 16.
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
S. G. H. A. SWINNEN and J.-P. SELTEN
Mood disorders and migration: Meta-analysis
The British Journal of Psychiatry,
January 1, 2007;
190(1):
6 - 10.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
S. P Singh and T. Burns
Race and mental health: there is more to race than racism
BMJ,
September 23, 2006;
333(7569):
648 - 651.
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
P. Fearon and C. Morgan
Environmental Factors in Schizophrenia: The Role of Migrant Studies
Schizophr Bull,
July 1, 2006;
32(3):
405 - 408.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
J. A. Hayden, P. Cote, and C. Bombardier
Evaluation of the quality of prognosis studies in systematic reviews.
Ann Intern Med,
March 21, 2006;
144(6):
427 - 437.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
J. B. Kirkbride, P. Fearon, C. Morgan, P. Dazzan, K. Morgan, J. Tarrant, T. Lloyd, J. Holloway, G. Hutchinson, J. P. Leff, et al.
Heterogeneity in Incidence Rates of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Syndromes: Findings From the 3-Center AeSOP Study.
Arch Gen Psychiatry,
March 1, 2006;
63(3):
250 - 258.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
J. J McGrath
Variations in the Incidence of Schizophrenia: Data Versus Dogma
Schizophr Bull,
January 1, 2006;
32(1):
195 - 197.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
M. T Compton
Review: migrants are at increased risk of developing schizophrenia
Evid. Based Ment. Health,
August 1, 2005;
8(3):
85 - 85.
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
J.-P. SELTEN and E. CANTOR-GRAAE
Social defeat: risk factor for schizophrenia?
The British Journal of Psychiatry,
August 1, 2005;
187(2):
101 - 102.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
P. Baldwin, D. Browne, P. J Scully, J. F Quinn, M. G Morgan, A. Kinsella, J. M Owens, V. Russell, E. O'Callaghan, and J. L Waddington
Epidemiology of First-Episode Psychosis: Illustrating the Challenges Across Diagnostic Boundaries Through the Cavan-Monaghan Study at 8 Years
Schizophr Bull,
July 1, 2005;
31(3):
624 - 638.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|

|
 |

|
 |
 
G. Eric Jarvis, L. J. Kirmayer, G. K. Jarvis, and R. Whitley
The Role of Afro-Canadian Status in Police or Ambulance Referral to Emergency Psychiatric Services
Psychiatr Serv,
June 1, 2005;
56(6):
705 - 710.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
 |
|
Get information about faster international access.
a>
Privacy Policy
Copyright © 2005
American Psychiatric Association.
All rights reserved.
Home
| Search
| Current Issue
| Past Issues
| Subscribe
| All APPI Journals
| Help
| Contact Us
|