Am J Psychiatry 160:636-645, April 2003
© 2003 American Psychiatric Association
The Endophenotype Concept in Psychiatry: Etymology and Strategic Intentions
Irving I. Gottesman, Ph.D., Hon. F.R.C.Psych., and
Todd D. Gould, M.D.
Endophenotypes, measurable components unseen by the unaided eye along the pathway between disease and distal genotype, have emerged as an important concept in the study of complex neuropsychiatric diseases. An endophenotype may be neurophysiological, biochemical, endocrinological, neuroanatomical, cognitive, or neuropsychological (including configured self-report data) in nature. Endophenotypes represent simpler clues to genetic underpinnings than the disease syndrome itself, promoting the view that psychiatric diagnoses can be decomposed or deconstructed, which can result in more straightforward—and successful—genetic analysis. However, to be most useful, endophenotypes for psychiatric disorders must meet certain criteria, including association with a candidate gene or gene region, heritability that is inferred from relative risk for the disorder in relatives, and disease association parameters. In addition to furthering genetic analysis, endophenotypes can clarify classification and diagnosis and foster the development of animal models. The authors discuss the etymology and strategy behind the use of endophenotypes in neuropsychiatric research and, more generally, in research on other diseases with complex genetics.
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A. S. Nadig, S. Ozonoff, G. S. Young, A. Rozga, M. Sigman, and S. J. Rogers
A Prospective Study of Response to Name in Infants at Risk for Autism
Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med,
April 1, 2007;
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N. F. Gould, M. K. Holmes, B. D. Fantie, D. A. Luckenbaugh, D. S. Pine, T. D. Gould, N. Burgess, H. K. Manji, and C. A. Zarate Jr.
Performance on a Virtual Reality Spatial Memory Navigation Task in Depressed Patients
Am J Psychiatry,
March 1, 2007;
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S. R. Chamberlain, N. A. Fineberg, L. A. Menzies, A. D. Blackwell, E. T. Bullmore, T. W. Robbins, and B. J. Sahakian
Impaired Cognitive Flexibility and Motor Inhibition in Unaffected First-Degree Relatives of Patients With Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Am J Psychiatry,
February 1, 2007;
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V. M. Goghari, K. Rehm, C. S. Carter, and A. W. MacDonald III
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G. K. Thaker
Endophenotypic Studies in Schizophrenia: Promise and Challenges
Schizophr Bull,
January 1, 2007;
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N. J. Schork, T. A. Greenwood, and D. L. Braff
Statistical Genetics Concepts and Approaches in Schizophrenia and Related Neuropsychiatric Research
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January 1, 2007;
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M. E. Calkins, D. J. Dobie, K. S. Cadenhead, A. Olincy, R. Freedman, M. F. Green, T. A. Greenwood, R. E. Gur, R. C. Gur, G. A. Light, et al.
The Consortium on the Genetics of Endophenotypes in Schizophrenia: Model Recruitment, Assessment, and Endophenotyping Methods for a Multisite Collaboration
Schizophr Bull,
January 1, 2007;
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D. L. Braff, R. Freedman, N. J. Schork, and I. I. Gottesman
Deconstructing Schizophrenia: An Overview of the Use of Endophenotypes in Order to Understand a Complex Disorder
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R. E. Gur, M. E. Calkins, R. C. Gur, W. P. Horan, K. H. Nuechterlein, L. J. Seidman, and W. S. Stone
The Consortium on the Genetics of Schizophrenia: Neurocognitive Endophenotypes
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B. I. Turetsky, M. E. Calkins, G. A. Light, A. Olincy, A. D. Radant, and N. R. Swerdlow
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B. A. Lewis, L. D. Shriberg, L. A. Freebairn, A. J. Hansen, C. M. Stein, H. G. Taylor, and S. K. Iyengar
The Genetic Bases of Speech Sound Disorders: Evidence From Spoken and Written Language
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M. A. Fauman
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